{"id":306,"date":"2015-08-28T19:22:13","date_gmt":"2015-08-28T19:22:13","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/?page_id=306"},"modified":"2022-09-22T10:26:11","modified_gmt":"2022-09-22T15:26:11","slug":"neuromodulation","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/index.php\/research\/neuromodulation\/","title":{"rendered":"Neuromodulation"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-page\" data-elementor-id=\"306\" class=\"elementor elementor-306 elementor-bc-flex-widget\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-wd56x03 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"wd56x03\" data-element_type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-hg6i2hk\" data-id=\"hg6i2hk\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-mu6vri7 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"mu6vri7\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<style>\/*! elementor - v3.19.0 - 07-02-2024 *\/\n.elementor-widget-text-editor.elementor-drop-cap-view-stacked .elementor-drop-cap{background-color:#69727d;color:#fff}.elementor-widget-text-editor.elementor-drop-cap-view-framed .elementor-drop-cap{color:#69727d;border:3px solid;background-color:transparent}.elementor-widget-text-editor:not(.elementor-drop-cap-view-default) .elementor-drop-cap{margin-top:8px}.elementor-widget-text-editor:not(.elementor-drop-cap-view-default) .elementor-drop-cap-letter{width:1em;height:1em}.elementor-widget-text-editor .elementor-drop-cap{float:left;text-align:center;line-height:1;font-size:50px}.elementor-widget-text-editor .elementor-drop-cap-letter{display:inline-block}<\/style>\t\t\t\t<h1>Brain Machine Interfaces<\/h1><p>Brain Machine Interfaces are an emerging set of technologies that aim to establish robust communication between the brain and the increasingly complex world around us. The following are some of the projects in our laboratory that focus on developing and advancing Brain Machine Interfaces:\u00a0<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-p801b1z elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"p801b1z\" data-element_type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-66 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-g5lwuir\" data-id=\"g5lwuir\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8bqb53g elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"8bqb53g\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<h2><a name=\"element_1\"><\/a>Single neuron control in brain-machine interfaces<\/h2>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-hlobjwc elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"hlobjwc\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<h4>Cesar Marquez-Chin, Milos R Popovic<\/h4>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-yfjmacu elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"yfjmacu\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>In the development of brain-machine interfaces (BMI), operant conditioning of neural activity is a strategy that has recently re-emerged from the need to design BMI systems that feel natural and intuitive to the user. In this strategy, a single cortical neuron is conditioned to produce an activity pattern that determines when the BMI is triggered.<\/p><p>Rats are implanted with an electrode array in the neocortex (top Figure) and trained to trigger a reward dispenser by activating a single cortical neuron at progressively higher firing rates, resulting in a typical learning curve (bottom Figure). Neurons are then classified into subgroups based on their electrophysiological characteristics.<\/p><p>The purpose of this project is to find neurons that perform reliably in a given BMI task. In addition, operant conditioning of single neuron activity facilitates BMI implementation and usability.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1om9z9x elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"1om9z9x\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<h4>Project Publications<\/h4><ul><li>Garcia-Garcia MG, Marquez-Chin C, Popovic MR. Operant conditioning reveals task-specific responses of single neurons in a brain\u2013machine interface. <i>J Neural Eng<\/i>. 2021;18(4):045003. doi:10.1088\/1741-2552\/abeeac<\/li><li>Garcia-Garcia MG, Marquez-Chin C, Popovic MR. Operant conditioning of motor cortex neurons reveals neuron-subtype-specific responses in a brain-machine interface task. <i>Sci Rep<\/i>. 2020;10(1):19992. doi:10.1038\/s41598-020-77090-2<\/li><li>M. G. Garcia-Garcia\u00a0<i>et al.<\/i>, \u201cNeuron-Type-Specific Utility in a Brain-Machine Interface: a Pilot Study,\u201d\u00a0<i>The Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine<\/i>, vol. 0, no. 0, pp. 1\u20138, Sep. 2017.<\/li><\/ul>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-33 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-bhojvop\" data-id=\"bhojvop\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-9z9fs1q elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"9z9fs1q\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<style>\/*! elementor - v3.19.0 - 07-02-2024 *\/\n.elementor-widget-image{text-align:center}.elementor-widget-image a{display:inline-block}.elementor-widget-image a img[src$=\".svg\"]{width:48px}.elementor-widget-image img{vertical-align:middle;display:inline-block}<\/style>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"640\" height=\"400\" src=\"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/LED-640x400.jpg\" class=\"attachment-onepress-medium size-onepress-medium wp-image-1058\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/LED-640x400.jpg 640w, https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/LED-480x300.jpg 480w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-irqg2dm elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"irqg2dm\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" width=\"464\" height=\"322\" src=\"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/learning_curve.png\" class=\"attachment-onepress-medium size-onepress-medium wp-image-1059\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/learning_curve.png 464w, https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/learning_curve-300x208.png 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 464px) 100vw, 464px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-iv0ioh3 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"iv0ioh3\" data-element_type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-lvfbh6l\" data-id=\"lvfbh6l\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-q4chn5v elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"q4chn5v\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<h2>BCI-controlled FES therapy for restoration of upper limb function<\/h2>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-iuqiu59 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"iuqiu59\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<h4><strong>Cesar Marquez-Chin, Milos R Popovic<\/strong><\/h4>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ryei2xg elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"ryei2xg\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Recent evidence suggest that the integration of brain-computer interacting technologies into the motor rehabilitation after paralysis can result in greater and\/or faster outcomes.<\/p><p>We are currently developing and testing the efficacy of functional electrical stimulation therapy (FEST), triggered by the activity of the brain, to restore voluntary movement of the arm and hand after spinal cord injury and stroke. Using brain-computer interfacing technology we identify a person&#8217;s intention to move the arm and\/or hand by analyzing the electroencephalographic (EEG) activity. Immediately after this, we trigger a complex sequence of electrical pulses applied to different muscles to produce the intended action. The use of electrical stimulation is reduced gradually as the ability to move is restored and it is discontinued completely at the end of this short-term therapeutic intervention.<\/p><p>Our first results have allowed us to see significant improvements in even cases that typically are unable to participate in other forms of therapy.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-41bw46x elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"41bw46x\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<h4>Project Publications<\/h4><p>C. Marquez-Chin, A. Marquis, and M. R. Popovic, \u201cEEG-Triggered Functional Electrical Stimulation Therapy for Restoring Upper Limb Function in Chronic Stroke with Severe Hemiplegia,\u201d\u00a0<i>Case Reports in Neurological Medicine<\/i>, vol. 2016, pp. 1\u201311, 2016.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ji9lb1h elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"ji9lb1h\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" width=\"640\" height=\"400\" src=\"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/BCIFES-640x400.jpg\" class=\"attachment-onepress-medium size-onepress-medium wp-image-1061\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/BCIFES-640x400.jpg 640w, https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/BCIFES-480x300.jpg 480w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-913geve elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"913geve\" data-element_type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-mlyxy6g\" data-id=\"mlyxy6g\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a65wgxf elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"a65wgxf\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<style>\/*! elementor - v3.19.0 - 07-02-2024 *\/\n.elementor-widget-divider{--divider-border-style:none;--divider-border-width:1px;--divider-color:#0c0d0e;--divider-icon-size:20px;--divider-element-spacing:10px;--divider-pattern-height:24px;--divider-pattern-size:20px;--divider-pattern-url:none;--divider-pattern-repeat:repeat-x}.elementor-widget-divider .elementor-divider{display:flex}.elementor-widget-divider .elementor-divider__text{font-size:15px;line-height:1;max-width:95%}.elementor-widget-divider .elementor-divider__element{margin:0 var(--divider-element-spacing);flex-shrink:0}.elementor-widget-divider .elementor-icon{font-size:var(--divider-icon-size)}.elementor-widget-divider .elementor-divider-separator{display:flex;margin:0;direction:ltr}.elementor-widget-divider--view-line_icon .elementor-divider-separator,.elementor-widget-divider--view-line_text 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.elementor-divider__element{margin-inline-end:0}.elementor-widget-divider:not(.elementor-widget-divider--view-line_text):not(.elementor-widget-divider--view-line_icon) .elementor-divider-separator{border-block-start:var(--divider-border-width) var(--divider-border-style) var(--divider-color)}.elementor-widget-divider--separator-type-pattern{--divider-border-style:none}.elementor-widget-divider--separator-type-pattern.elementor-widget-divider--view-line .elementor-divider-separator,.elementor-widget-divider--separator-type-pattern:not(.elementor-widget-divider--view-line) .elementor-divider-separator:after,.elementor-widget-divider--separator-type-pattern:not(.elementor-widget-divider--view-line) .elementor-divider-separator:before,.elementor-widget-divider--separator-type-pattern:not([class*=elementor-widget-divider--view]) .elementor-divider-separator{width:100%;min-height:var(--divider-pattern-height);-webkit-mask-size:var(--divider-pattern-size) 100%;mask-size:var(--divider-pattern-size) 100%;-webkit-mask-repeat:var(--divider-pattern-repeat);mask-repeat:var(--divider-pattern-repeat);background-color:var(--divider-color);-webkit-mask-image:var(--divider-pattern-url);mask-image:var(--divider-pattern-url)}.elementor-widget-divider--no-spacing{--divider-pattern-size:auto}.elementor-widget-divider--bg-round{--divider-pattern-repeat:round}.rtl .elementor-widget-divider .elementor-divider__text{direction:rtl}.e-con-inner>.elementor-widget-divider,.e-con>.elementor-widget-divider{width:var(--container-widget-width,100%);--flex-grow:var(--container-widget-flex-grow)}<\/style>\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-h8kon2c elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"h8kon2c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<h1>Deep Brain Stimulation\u00a0<\/h1>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-k77z395 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"k77z395\" data-element_type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-5p444wx\" data-id=\"5p444wx\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-r8s7ak0 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"r8s7ak0\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<h2>Neuronal response properties to electrical stimulation in movement disorder patients<\/h2>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-0cu1obz elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"0cu1obz\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<h4>Milos R Popovic<\/h4>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-t7ay7pn elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"t7ay7pn\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is an effective therapy for treating the motor symptoms of Parkinson\u2019s disease, essential tremor, dystonia, and other movement disorders. It consists of surgically implanting chronic, indwelling electrodes into specific target structures of the brain to deliver continuous electrical stimulation. The mechanisms of action of how DBS works are varied, complex, and remain unclear. The purpose of this study is to guide the advancement and optimization of this therapy, and also to broaden its applicability. In awake surgical patients undergoing DBS implantation, we record activity from individual neurons in specific brain target structures, and can characterize their responses to electrical stimulation.<\/p><p>We have found that different brain structures have unique responses to stimulation that are dependent on their underlying anatomy and physiology, thus stimulation parameters cannot be programmed homogenously. Additionally, we\u2019ve found that an important mechanism of action of therapeutic, high-frequency stimulation is neurotransmitter depletion and we\u2019ve also discovered that therapeutic levels of high-frequency stimulation enhance synaptic plasticity.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-u8s5fcd elementor-widget elementor-widget-image-gallery\" data-id=\"u8s5fcd\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image-gallery.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<style>\/*! elementor - v3.19.0 - 07-02-2024 *\/\n.elementor-image-gallery .gallery-item{display:inline-block;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;width:100%;max-width:100%;margin:0 auto}.elementor-image-gallery .gallery-item img{margin:0 auto}.elementor-image-gallery .gallery-item .gallery-caption{margin:0}.elementor-image-gallery figure img{display:block}.elementor-image-gallery figure 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.gallery-item,.elementor-image-gallery .gallery.gallery-columns-10 .gallery-item{max-width:100%}}<\/style>\t\t<div class=\"elementor-image-gallery\">\n\t\t\t<div id='gallery-1' class='gallery galleryid-306 gallery-columns-2 gallery-size-onepress-medium'><figure class='gallery-item'>\n\t\t\t<div class='gallery-icon landscape'>\n\t\t\t\t<a data-elementor-open-lightbox=\"yes\" data-elementor-lightbox-slideshow=\"u8s5fcd\" data-elementor-lightbox-title=\"intraoperative neuronal recordings\" data-e-action-hash=\"#elementor-action%3Aaction%3Dlightbox%26settings%3DeyJpZCI6MTMyMSwidXJsIjoiaHR0cHM6XC9cL3JlbHRvcm9udG8uY2FcL3dwLWNvbnRlbnRcL3VwbG9hZHNcL2ludHJhb3BlcmF0aXZlLW5ldXJvbmFsLXJlY29yZGluZ3MucG5nIiwic2xpZGVzaG93IjoidThzNWZjZCJ9\" href='https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/intraoperative-neuronal-recordings.png'><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"640\" height=\"400\" src=\"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/intraoperative-neuronal-recordings-640x400.png\" class=\"attachment-onepress-medium size-onepress-medium\" alt=\"\" aria-describedby=\"gallery-1-1321\" srcset=\"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/intraoperative-neuronal-recordings-640x400.png 640w, https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/intraoperative-neuronal-recordings-480x300.png 480w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\" \/><\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<figcaption class='wp-caption-text gallery-caption' id='gallery-1-1321'>\n\t\t\t\tExperimental setup and sample intraoperative neuronal recordings during stimulation\n\t\t\t\t<\/figcaption><\/figure><figure class='gallery-item'>\n\t\t\t<div class='gallery-icon landscape'>\n\t\t\t\t<a data-elementor-open-lightbox=\"yes\" data-elementor-lightbox-slideshow=\"u8s5fcd\" data-elementor-lightbox-title=\"synaptive plasticity\" data-e-action-hash=\"#elementor-action%3Aaction%3Dlightbox%26settings%3DeyJpZCI6MTMyMiwidXJsIjoiaHR0cHM6XC9cL3JlbHRvcm9udG8uY2FcL3dwLWNvbnRlbnRcL3VwbG9hZHNcL3N5bmFwdGl2ZS1wbGFzdGljaXR5LnBuZyIsInNsaWRlc2hvdyI6InU4czVmY2QifQ%3D%3D\" href='https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/synaptive-plasticity.png'><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"640\" height=\"400\" src=\"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/synaptive-plasticity-640x400.png\" class=\"attachment-onepress-medium size-onepress-medium\" alt=\"\" aria-describedby=\"gallery-1-1322\" srcset=\"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/synaptive-plasticity-640x400.png 640w, https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/synaptive-plasticity-480x300.png 480w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\" \/><\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<figcaption class='wp-caption-text gallery-caption' id='gallery-1-1322'>\n\t\t\t\tEnhancement of inhibitory synaptic plasticity after high-frequency stimulation\n\t\t\t\t<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-k3jysfw elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"k3jysfw\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<h4>Project Publications<\/h4><p>L. Milosevic, S.K. Kalia, M. Hodaie, A.M. Lozano, A. Fasano, M.R. Popovic, W.D. Hutchison, \u201cNeuronal inhibition and synaptic plasticity of basal ganglia neurons in Parkinson&#8217;s disease,\u201d <em>Brain<\/em>, <em>141(1) pp: 177-190<\/em>, 2018. DOI: 10.1093\/brain\/awx296<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-8frt28w elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"8frt28w\" data-element_type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-2m13zqv\" data-id=\"2m13zqv\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-6mvs400 elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"6mvs400\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-w5tt2g7 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"w5tt2g7\" data-element_type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-dnnv32l\" data-id=\"dnnv32l\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"Brain Machine Interfaces Brain Machine Interfaces are an emerging set of technologies that aim to establish robust communication between the brain and the increasingly complex world around us. The following &#8230;","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":951,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","template":"","meta":{"pgc_meta":"","footnotes":""},"pgc_meta":"","_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/306"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=306"}],"version-history":[{"count":16,"href":"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/306\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2164,"href":"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/306\/revisions\/2164"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/951"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/reltoronto.ca\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=306"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}